Course Content
Microscopes and Microscopy
MICROSCOPES AND MICROSCOPY OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Name various types of microscopes. 2.State the function of parts of a microscope. 3.Describe the use of compound light microscopes describe care and maintenance of compound microscopes. 4.Describe preparation of microscope slides
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Introduction to Microscopes and Microscopy Techniques
Types of Microscopes
The Optical(Light) Microscope
Magnifications and Resolving Power of Microscopes
Use and Care of Microscopes
The Cell
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Define and explain meaning of terms. 2.State types of cells. 3.Describe the cell structure under the light microscope. 4.State the functions of cell organelles. 5.Describe the process of mitosis and meiosis. 6.Describe physiological processes of cells. 7.describe the techniques of cell isolation. 8.Describe the procedure of temporary cell preparation.
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INTRODUCTION
The Cell Structure
The Cell Functions
Cell Division
The Cell Cycle
Mitosis
Meiosis
Similarities and Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
Microscope Slides
Microscope Slides Preparartion
Tissue Preparation For Microscpy
Microorganisms
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic , the trainee should be able to: 1.Classify the major groups of microorganisms. 2.State the general characteristics of each group. 3.Explain their mode of nutrition and reproduction. 4.Describe culture media. 5.Describe culturing techniques for bacteria. 6.Describe methods for determining bacteria population. 7.Describe sterilization and disinfection techniques.
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INTRODUCTION
Classification of Microorganisms
Bacteria
Classification of Bacteria
Nutrition in Bacteria
Reproduction in Bacteria
Economic Importance of Bacteria
Fungi
Classification of Fungi
Nutrition in Fungi
Reproduction In Fungi
Economic Importance of Fungi
Virus
Classification of Virus
Reproduction in Virus
Economic Importance of Virus
Culture Media
Preparation of Culture Media
Culture Methods
Culture Techniques
Microbiological Stains and Staining Techniques
Microbiological Staining Techniques
Sterilization
Chemicals of Life
THE CHEMICALS OF LIFE OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain meaning of terms. 2.Describe chemical substances found in living organisms. 3.Describe the functions of substances found in living organisms. 4.Describe enzymes. 5.Carry out food tests.
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INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates
Structural composition of Carbohydrates
Chemical Tests for Carbohydrates
Lipids
Structural composition of Lipids
Saturated and Unsaturated fats
Tests for Lipids
Proteins
Structural composition of Proteins
Protein Denaturation
Properties of Proteins
Test for Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Vitamins
Enzymes
Classification of Enzymes
Mechanisms of Enzyme Action
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activities
Enzyme Inhibition
Immunological Techniques
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Define terms. 2.Describe types of immunity. 3.Describe types of immune cells. 4.Describe the lymphoid organs and tissues. 5.Describe serological and immunological techniques.
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INTRODUCTION
Types of Immunity
Lymphocytes and Lymphatic System
The White Blood Cells  (Leucocytes )
Lymphoid Organs ,Tissues and Immune Cells
Immunoglobulins
Antigens
Immunological Techniques
Herbarium Techniques
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic , the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain terms 2.Describe importance of collecting and preserving herbarium specimens 3.Describe sources of herbarium specimens 4.Describe collection of herbarium specimens 5.Describe preservation of herbarium specimens 6.Describe display of herbarium specimens
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Introduction
Collection of Plant Specimens
Collecting techniques
Preservation Techniques
Processing of Specimens
Storage of Specimens
Pests In The Herbarium
Green House and Botanical Garden
Museum Techniques
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain terms. 2.Describe importance of collecting and preserving museum specimens. 3.Describe sources of museum specimens. 4.Describe collection of museum specimens. 5.Describe preservation of museum specimens. 6.Describe display of museum specimens
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INTRODUCTION
Collection of Museum Specimens
Preservation of Museum Specimens
Preservation of other animals specimens
Labeling of museum specimens
Vivarium Techniques
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain terms. 2.Describe importance of vivarium. 3.Describe essential features of a vivarium. 4.Describe construction of a vivarium. 5.Describe maintenance of a vivarium.
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Introduction
Setting Up A vivarium
Ecological Requirements
Care and Handling
Aquarium Techniques
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain terms. 2.Describe importance of aquariums. 3.Describe essential features of an aquarium tank. 4.Describe construction of an aquarium tank. 5.Describe maintenance of an aquarium tank.
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Introduction
Setting up an Aquarium
Basic Physical and Ecological requirements
Feeding and General care of Aquarium
Laboratory Animals
OBJECTIVES The objective of this chapter is to give a better understanding of the technical requirements regarding handling, care and maintained of various laboratory animals In this chapter, we will; 1. Identify the various types of laboratory animals. 2.Discuss the general care and handling of laboratory animals. 3. Describe the various methods of restraining and humane killing laboratory animals 4.Discuss care of specific disease free (SPF)and Gnotobiotic animals
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Introduction
General Care of Laboratory Animals
Laboratory Animal House
Feeding of Laboratory Animals
Disease and Disease control in Laboratory animals
Sexing of Laboratory Animals
Identification of Laboratory Animals
Dosing of Laboratory animals
Drawing blood from Lab animals
Administering anesthesia to laboratory animals
Humane Killing of Laboratory Animals
Dissecting Laboratory Animals
Conventional and Specific Pathogen free animals
Gnotobiotic Animals
Introduction to Ecology
OBJECTIVE By the end of this module, the trainee should be able to: 1.Explain terms. 2.Describe biotic and abiotic factors. 3.Explain adaptation of organisms to terrestrial and aquatic environment. 4.Describe the energy flow in ecosystem. 5.Explain estimation of population in ecosystem. 6.Describe influence of human activities on environment. 7.Describe basic biogeochemical cycles.
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Introduction
The Biosphere and Biomes
The Ecosystem
Energy Flow
Estimation of Population size
Nutrient Flow in Ecosystem
Water cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Sulfur Cycle
Phosphorous Cycle
Ecological succession
Plant Anatomy and Physiology
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Describe of plant parts and tissues. 2.Describe functions of various plant tissues. 3.Describe processes in plants .
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INTRODUCTION
Plant Vascular Tissues
Plant Leaf Structure
Transport of substances into and out of the leaf 
Nutrition in Plants
Transpiration in Plants
Translocation in plants
Reproduction in Plants
Excretion in Plants
Animal Anatomy and Physiology
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to: 1.Describe of animal parts and tissues. 2.Describe functions of various animal tissues and organs. 3.Describe physiological processes in animals .
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Nutrition In Animals
Types of Nutrition  in Animals
Digestion in Humans
Digestion in Ruminants
Respiration in Animals
Modes of Gaseous Exchange in Animals
Mammalian Respiratory System
Excretion in Animals
Excretion in Higher Animals
Excretory System in Man:
Transport In Animals
Circulatory systems in animals
Human circulatory systems 
The cardiac cycle 
The Blood Vessels
Lymphatic circulatory system
Cardiovascular diseases 
Support and Locomotion system in Animals
Exoskeleton and Endoskeleton
Human Skeleton
The Bones 
Musculoskeletal tissues 
The Nervous System
The Nerve Tissue
Organization of the Nervous System
Reproductive system in Animals
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
The Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones
Biology Techniques For Science Laboratory Technicians
About Lesson

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Digestion in Humans

The food that we eat passes through a Canal inside our body.

The food is processed and utilized in the body and unused food is collected inside the canal only.

This Canal is often called as the Alimentary Canal or the Digestive Tract.

The canal is divided into different parts:

  • The Mouth or Buccal Cavity
  • Food Pipe or Oesophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small Intestine
  • Large Intestine
  • Anus

Figure 2: Digestive Tract in Humans

There are three glands associated with the alimentary canal that secrete digestive juices that are used to convert the complex food substances into simpler substances.

  • liver
  • pancreas
  • salivary glands

The Digestive System – The alimentary canal and the digestive glands together form a system in the human body which is responsible for the digestion of food in the body. This system is called the Digestive System.

The Mouth or Buccal Cavity

                    The Mouth or Buccal Cavity

Ingestion refers to the process of taking in the food through the mouth.  The food is chewed with the help of teeth, saliva and the tongue present in the mouth.

The salivary glands present in our mouth secrete saliva which mixes with the food, moist it and breaks the starch present in the food into sugar.

The tongue present in the mouth helps in mixing the food with the saliva and helps in swallowing it inside the mouth. It also has taste buds which help in identifying the taste of anything that we eat. Besides this, the tongue also helps in talking.

The Teeth. Teeth pay an important role in digestion , they help in cutting ,  tearing ,chewing  and grinding of food into finer particles that can be digested by enzymes. There are two sets of teeth.

Milk Teeth – In the early childhood a set of teeth growth in children that then fall off after certain age 6 to 8 years. These teeth are called Milk Teeth.

Permanent Teeth – The teeth that grow after milk teeth fall off are called Permanent Teeth. They generally remain during the lifetime of a person or at least until old age.

Teeth can also be classified into four major sets as shown in the diagram below.

Different Types of Teeth

Tooth Decay 

 Tooth decay refers to the  gradual damage of teeth  caused due to  presence of bacteria in the mouth that grow if we do not keep our mouth and teeth clean. Tooth decay is caused mainly because of eating food with high sugar content, soft drinks and chocolates. Any leftover food present inside our teeth is broken down by such bacteria. As a result, an acid is released which damages the teeth slowly.  Tooth decay can cause severe pain and even toothless.

How can we prevent tooth decay?

  • Clean your teeth with a brush or dental floss at least twice a day
  • Rinse your mouth after every meal you eat
  • Do not put a dirty finger or any unwashed food items in your mouth

Food Pipe or Oesophagus

The food pipe starts from the neck region and runs until the chest area in animals.

The food, when the chewed, moves through the food pipe and reach the stomach through this path.

The food moves in download direction in the food pipe.

The Stomach

The stomach is  the widest part of the alimentary canal. It’s a bag like structure in a flat U shape.

The stomach is connected with the food pipe and the small intestine. The stomach’s inner lining produces three things:

  1. Mucous:It protects the stomach lining
  2. Hydrochloric Acid: It kills the bacteria present inside the stomach and activates the digestive juices
  3. Digestive Juices: They help in digestion of the food by breaking down the proteins present in the food into simple substances (olympiads)

Small Intestine

 The small intestines is a highly coiled structure. With a length of approximately 7.5m.  The small intestine breaks the carbohydrates into glucose, fats into fatty acids and proteins into amino acids.

The inner lining of the intestine also secretes some digestive juices on its own. It is also connected to the liver and pancreas release digestive juices into the small intestine.

.The Liver

 Liver is  the  known  largest gland of the human body. It is usually  reddish brown in colour . It secretes a digestive juice called bile juice. The bile juice is stored in the gallbladder. The bile juice makes it possible for the body to digest the fats.

The Pancreas

Pancreas  is a cream coloured gland present in the human body. Which secretes pancreatic juice that helps in digestion of fats, carbohydrates and proteins.

Absorption of Nutrients  in the small intestines

Absorption is a process by which the digested food enters the blood vessels of the small intestine.

The small intestine contains small finger-like structures called Villi. They increase the surface area of the intestine thereby increasing the amount of absorption. The digested food gets into the blood vessels through villi and then reaches the whole body.

             Villi in Small Intestine

The process by which the organs of the body utilize the digested food and form complex substances which the body needs such as proteins are called Assimilation.

Parts of Small Intestine

The small intestine has been divided into three parts:

  1. Duodenum

It is the first part of the small intestine whose main function is to initiate the digestive process. In this process, the food that enters the small intestine from the stomach is mixed with the digestive juices (bile and pancreatic juice) and is further broken down into simpler substances.

  1. Jejunum

It is the middle part of the small intestine that contains the villi and hence undergoes absorption and assimilation.

  1. Ileum

It is the third and last part of the small intestine that contains villi-like structures. The ileum absorbs vitamin B12, bile acids and any other nutrients present in the food.

The Large Intestine

Any food that is left undigested passes through the small intestine and enters the large intestine.

It is a wide tube-like structure.

It is only 1.5 m long.

The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water and salts from the undigested food.

The rest of the waste, undigested food passes through the rectum.

Egestion: The process by which the waste, undigested food (the faecal matter) get out of the body through the anus.

The food that we eat passes through a Canal inside our body.

The food is processed and utilized in the body and unused food is collected inside the canal only.

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