Revision KNEC Questions and Answers on Laboratory Management

Waste is defined as anything that does not add value to your work. Common sources of waste in labs include product defects, overproduction, lack of inventory, under-utilized talent, non-approached specialists, training failures, transportation issues, extra processing efforts, and waiting for people, equipment, or reagents.

Empower your team.

Train your team to become more productive by becoming waste eliminators. Rather than viewing waste as your team failing, treat it as a group opportunity for improving your lab’s health and productivity..

Manage information. Adopt a Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS). LIMSs provide an environment to track your samples and standardize your protocols. Some LIMS even include Electronic Laboratory Notebooks
Label your samples. Mislabeled samples lead to confusion, decreased productivity, and ultimately decreased reproducibility.
Calibrate your instruments. Properly calibrated instruments are essential to ensure the reproducibility of the results produced by your lab.
Automate your processes. One of the main benefits of automation is that it increases reproducibility and reduces failure. It is a common mistake to think that automation is limited to physical automation. It is possible to automate laboratory processes without automated instruments.

Discuss any five responsibilities of a competent laboratory technician

conducting and supporting scientific investigations and experiments
planning, setting up and undertaking controlled experiments and trials
recording and analysing data
demonstrating procedures
collecting, preparing and/or testing samples
maintaining, calibrating, cleaning and testing sterility of the equipment
providing technical support
presenting results to senior staff
writing reports, reviews and summaries
keeping up to date with relevant scientific and technical developments
supervising staff
carrying out risk assessments
ordering and maintaining stock and resources

Draw a diagram to show the Maslow’s pyramid of needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs dictate an individual’s behavior. Those needs are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.

Outline the methods through which the maslow’s pyramid of needs can be achieved in an organisation

The needs have been classified into the following in order:

Physiological needs-These are the basic needs of an individual which includes food, clothing, shelter, air, water, etc. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life.
Safety needs-These needs are also important for human beings. Everybody wants job security, protection against danger, safety of property, etc.
Social needs-These needs emerge from society. Man is a social animal. These needs become important. For example- love, affection, belongingness, friendship, conversation, etc.
Esteem needs-These needs relate to desire for self-respect, recognition and respect from others.
Self-actualization needs-These are the needs of the highest order and these needs are found in those person whose previous four needs are satisfied. This will include need for social service, meditation.

define the term management

Management is the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve a goal. Such administration activities include setting the organization’s strategy and coordinating the efforts of staff to accomplish these objectives through the application of available resources.

State any three function of a manager

Management is the process of guiding the development, maintenance, and allocation of resources to attain organizational goals. Managers are the people in the organization responsible for developing and carrying out this management process. The four primary functions of managers are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. By using the four functions, managers work to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of their employees, processes, projects, and organizations as a whole.

Distinguish between power and authority

Power and authority are two concepts that are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings and implications. Here’s how they can be distinguished:

Power:

Power refers to the ability or capacity to influence or control others or events. It is the potential to exert control, make decisions, or take actions that can produce an effect or outcome. Power can be acquired through various means, such as through wealth, position, knowledge, physical strength, or social influence. It does not necessarily require formal authorization or legitimacy.

Key points about power:

Source: Power can be derived from personal attributes, resources, or social dynamics. It can be obtained through personal skills, expertise, connections, or control over essential resources.
Exercise: Power is exercised through actions, whether persuasive, coercive, manipulative, or authoritative. It can be used to direct or influence the behavior, decisions, or actions of others.

Volatility: Power can be dynamic and subject to change. It can be gained, lost, or transferred depending on various factors such as shifting circumstances, alliances, or the actions of other individuals or groups.

Authority:

Authority, on the other hand, refers to the legitimate or formal right to exercise power or control over others. It is typically associated with official positions, roles, or positions of responsibility within an organizational or social structure. Authority is granted or delegated by higher authorities or by a system of rules, regulations, or laws.

Key points about authority:

Legitimacy: Authority is based on legitimacy and the recognition of certain roles or positions within a system or organization. It is derived from social norms, legal frameworks, or established hierarchies.
Hierarchy: Authority is often structured in a hierarchical manner, where individuals in higher positions have greater authority over those in lower positions. It implies a chain of command or a system of governance.
Accountability: Authority comes with a certain level of accountability and responsibility. Those in positions of authority are expected to act in the best interests of the organization or society and may be held accountable for their decisions and actions.

In summary, power refers to the ability to influence or control others, regardless of whether it is formally granted or recognized, while authority refers to the legitimate or formal right to exercise power, usually derived from a position or role within a structured system or organization.

5.(a) Define the term ‘span of control’ as used in management

Span of control refers to the number of subordinates under the manager’s direct control. The span of control refers to the number of subordinates that can be managed effectively and efficiently by supervisors or managers in an organization. As an example, a manager with five direct reports has a span of control of five. Too many or too few direct reports is a good way to view how efficient an organization is as long as it is looked at in the context of the company’s organizational structure.

List any two factors that influence span of control

Following are the factors affecting span of control:
The Ability of Officers
The very first and most important factor in determining the span of control is the ability of officers who have to manage.
If they are very efficient and capable. They can control a large number of subordinates on the contrary.
If the officers are less efficient they would not be able to control that much number of subordinates.
Availability of time for supervision
The second factor which determines the span of control is the availability of time with the managers of higher cadre for supervision.
If they have less time for supervision, they would not be able to control a large number of subordinates.
Nature of work
The span of management is affected by the nature of work also.If the work is of a simple and routine nature, managers can control a large number of persons.
On the contrary, If the work is more complicated, Managers cannot have effective control over a small number of employees only.
Plans for the Enterprise
If the plans of the enterprise are clear and stable, the managers feel it easy to control the activities of their subordinates.
On the contrary, If the plans of the enterprise are not stable, it becomes very difficult for the managers to control the activities of a large number of subordinates.
Ability and efficiency of subordinates
A very important factor affecting the span of management is the ability, efficiency, and willingness of subordinates.
If the subordinates are able and efficient and they are willing to coordinate with their higher officers, Managers can control a large number of subordinates.
Techniques of control
The span of control depends upon the techniques of control also.
If the techniques of control effective the managers can control a large number of subordinates.
On the contrary, It is the technique of individual supervision is used, the managers will not be able to maintain effective control of all the employees.
Degree of decentralization
If there is an adequate decentralization of power in the enterprise, The managers can control a large number of subordinates because their burden of work will be light.
On the company, If the centralization is not so much adopted, Managers will be able to have effective control over as a small number of subordinates only.
Service of Experts
If the service of experts is available in an enterprise, The number of subordinates under the control of one official may be more and if the services of experts not available in the enterprise.
The number of subordinates under the control of one officer will be Limited.

State five benefits of policies in an organization

provide workers with knowledge about what is expected of them, e.g. behaviour and performance standards;
provide rules and guidelines for decision-making in routine situations;
provide a consistent and clear response across the company in dealing with situations;
demonstrate your good faith that workers will be treated fairly and equally;
provide an accepted method of dealing with complaints and misunderstandings to help avoid claims of bias and favouritism;
provide a clear framework for the delegation of decision-making;
provide a means of communicating information to new workers; and
ensure that you are better equipped to defend claims of a breach of employer obligations, e.g. health and safety legislation.

Highlght three principles of scientific management in school of thought

F.W. Taylor or Fredrick Winslow Taylor, also known as the ‘Father of scientific management’ proved with his practical theories that a scientific method can be implemented to management. Taylor gave much concentration on the supervisory level of management and performance of managers and workers at an operational level.

Science, not the Rule of Thumb-

This rule focuses on increasing the efficiency of an organisation through scientific analysis of work and not with the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method. Taylor believed that even a small activity like loading paper sheets into boxcars can be planned scientifically. This will save time and also human energy. This decision should be based on scientific analysis and cause and effect relationships rather than ‘Rule of Thumb’ where the decision is taken according to the manager’s personal judgement.

Harmony, Not Discord-

Taylor indicated and believed that the relationship between the workers and management should be cordial and completely harmonious. Difference between the two will never be beneficial to either side. Management and workers should acknowledge and understand each other’s importance. Taylor also suggested the mental revolution for both management and workers to achieve total harmony.

Mental Revolution-

This technique involves a shift of attitude of management and workers towards each other. Both should understand the value of each other and work with full participation and cooperation. The aim of both should be to improve and boost the profits of the organisation. Mental Revolution demands a complete change in the outlook of both the workers and management; both should have a sense of togetherness.

Cooperation, not Individualism-

It is similar to ‘Harmony, not discord’ and believes in mutual collaboration between workers and the management. Managers and workers should have mutual cooperation and confidence and a sense of goodwill. The main purpose is to substitute internal competition with cooperation.

Development of Every Person to his Greatest Efficiency-

The effectiveness of a company also relies on the abilities and skills of its employees. Thus, implementing training, learning best practices and technology, is the scientific approach to brush up the employee skill. To assure that the training is given to the right employee, the right steps should be taken at the time of selection and recruiting candidates based on a scientific selection.

(a) Give 3 advantages of scientific management?

The three advantages of scientific management are as follows:

Reduced cost of production
Increased efficiency
Less production time

Give four limitations of scientific management

Exploitative devices: The benefits of increased productivity were not shared with the workers, therefore there was no change in the economic condition of the workers.
Depersonalised work: The workers were doing the same kind of work everyday, which led to monotony.
Undemocratic: There was no rotation of work, challenging tasks were performed by a specific group of workers while others were burdened with routine work.
Unrealistic: The scientific management theory focused mainly on the financial and physical needs of the workers, while ignoring the ego needs and social status of the workers.
Requires huge capital: Setting up of work study, planning department and training of workers involves considerable amount of investment.
Autocratic: It provides total control to the superiors in the way they manage the subordinates, which leads to dissatisfaction among workers.
Differentiate between dispute of rights and dispute of interest

There are two types of disputes: rights disputes and interest disputes. A rights dispute involves the interpretation, application, administration, or alleged violation of an existing collective agreement or award. An interest dispute involves settling the terms of a new collective agreement.

State benefits of good planning to an organization
(a) Planning facilitates management by objectives.

a) · Planning minimizes uncertainties.

b) · Planning facilitates co-ordination.

c) · Planning improves employee’s moral.

d) · Planning helps in achieving economies.

e) · Planning facilitates controlling.

f) · Planning provides competitive edge.

g) · Planning encourages innovations.

Distinguish between mission and objectives as element of planning premise s in organization

Mission is a general statement of how you will achieve your vision. Strategies are a series of ways of using the mission to achieve the vision. Goals are statements of what needs to be accomplished to implement the strategy. Objectives are specific actions and timelines for achieving the goal.

Describe planning premises

A planning premise is a set of assumptions that are derived from forecasting the future. It is a logical and systematic estimate of the future factors that can affect planning. Planning premises provide a background against which the estimated events take place. These are the events that affect planning

State four planning feature of control in an organization

Planning involves establishing goals and communicating these goals to employees of the organization. The control function assesses whether goals were achieved and is often used to evaluate the performance of employees, departments, and the organization as a whole.

State and explain benefits of control process in an organization

energy savings – energy wastage is reduced when your plant and machinery are efficiently operated
improved safety – control systems automatically warn you of any abnormalities which minimises the risk of accidents
consistent product quality – variations in product quality are kept to a minimum and reduce your wastage
lower manufacturing costs – detecting faults early means throughput, yield and quality are maintained
improved environmental performance – systems can give you an early warning of a rise in emissions

Differentiate between formal and informal organization

A formal organization is defined as an organization that has set rules and regulations to be followed by the employees. On the other hand, an informal organization is defined as an organization that focuses on building social relationships and networks.

State five reasons of planning as a critical element of good management in an organization .

Planning dictates how to effectively organise a business. It encompasses determining necessary future activities, assigning them to the right personnel, delegating authority, providing tools and raw material, etc.
Having a plan of action facilitates directing as it makes instructions, guidance, and motivation grounded in a brand strategy.
Planning informs staffing, as it shows what work-force a company will need.
Establishment of standards and measurement of actual performance – controlling – is done against the expectations that planning sets

Explain why cybernetc control system is better than other control systems in an organization

Cybernetic control automatically detects problems and reacts based off those detections. There is a sensor that monitors the outputs and compares them to pre-determined standards. If there is a difference between the output and the standard this will determine that action is necessary.

Describe the principle of preventive control system
Define delegation

Delegation of authority is a process in which the authority and powers are divided and shared amongst the subordinates. When the work of a manager gets beyond his capacity, there should be some system of sharing the work. This is how delegation of authority becomes an important tool in organization function. Through delegation, a manager, in fact, is multiplying himself by dividing/multiplying his work with the subordinates.

State and explain the importance of delegation

Through delegation, a manager is able to divide the work and allocate it to the subordinates. This helps in reducing his work load so that he can work on important areas such as – planning, business analysis etc.
With the reduction of load on superior, he can concentrate his energy on important and critical issues of concern. This way he is able to bring effectiveness in his work as well in the work unit. This effectivity helps a manager to prove his ability and skills in the best manner.
Delegation of authority is the ground on which the superior-subordinate relationship stands. An organization functions as the authority flows from top level to bottom. This in fact shows that through delegation, the superior-subordinate relationship become meaningful. The flow of authority is from top to bottom which is a way of achieving results.
Delegation of authority in a way gives enough room and space to the subordinates to flourish their abilities and skill. Through delegating powers, the subordinates get a feeling of importance. They get motivated to work and this motivation provides appropriate results to a concern. Job satisfaction is an important criterion to bring stability and soundness in the relationship between superior and subordinates. Delegation also helps in breaking the monotony of the subordinates so that they can be more creative and efficient.
Delegation of authority is not only helpful to the subordinates but it also helps the managers to develop their talents and skills. Since the manager get enough time through delegation to concentrate on important issues, their decision-making gets strong and in a way they can flourish the talents which are required in a manager. Through granting powers and getting the work done, helps the manager to attain communication skills, supervision and guidance, effective motivation and the leadership traits are flourished. Therefore it is only through delegation, a manager can be tested on his traits.
Delegation of authority is help to both superior and subordinates. This, in a way, gives stability to a concern’s working. With effective results, a concern can think of creating more departments and divisions flow working. This will require creation of more managers which can be fulfilled by shifting the experienced, skilled managers to these positions. This helps in both virtual as well as horizontal growth which is very important for a concern’s stability.

Therefore, from the above points, we can justify that delegation is not just a process but it is a way by which manager multiples himself and is able to bring stability, ability and soundness to a concern.

Explain the general provisions of factory acts in Kenya regarding employees
Explain “Gherao” as used in labor relation

Gherao means to surround. In the method, a group of workers initiate collective action, aimed at preventing members of the management from leaving the office. This can happen outside the factory premises too. The person who are gherao are not allowed to move for a long time, sometimes even without food or water.

State six objectives of Federation of Kenya Employers (FKE)

Promote good industrial relations between employers and their employees through their trade unions;
Encourage fair labour practices among the employers;
Provide forum for consultation between and among members;
Collect and circulate information and statistics and advise members on their rights and obligations on employment matters
Initiate, promote and support legislative measures which are likely to benefit employers or to promote their interests;
Represent, advocate and defend the interest of employers generally.

State importance of delegating authority

It frees up time for planning and organizing.
Most managers would like to have more time to get a handle on planning and organization. This is an important part of managing any team, and it’s difficult to work it in between all your other tasks when you’re carrying too heavy a workload.
It helps you learn how to manage and develop employees.
If you aren’t certain of your own ability to develop your team, delegation is the best way to start. If you know what you want to accomplish, learning how to delegate the process is an important step towards becoming a better manager and having a better team.
It keeps you from spreading yourself too thin.
Having too much on your plate is not only difficult for you, it can be disastrous for your team. If you can’t manage your own workload, you can’t hope to manage anything else. Get a grip; work smarter, not harder, and spread the load around.
It encourages open communication and trust.
If you delegate to your team members and remain open for questions, they will feel that you trust them and that you are accessible for communication. If your employees feel that you trust them and that they can talk to you, you will benefit immeasurably. A team built on trust and open communication is a team poised for success.
It can show you a better way.
Employees who take over a process or job may have a completely novel approach, and sometimes it’s a major improvement! If you just keep doing things the way you’ve always done them and refuse to allow anyone else a shot, there will be no opportunity for new and different ideas and approaches, process improvements, or other potential innovations.
It motivates and builds morale.
Employees find it gratifying when their managers delegate to them. For most, this is a sign that they are valued and trusted workers, and that their manager believes them capable of greater success. This can be more motivational than any team pizza party could ever be.
It encourages and stimulates creativity and initiative.
If employees feel empowered to accomplish delegated tasks in their own way, they can become very both very creative and very driven to succeed. Their personal initiative and the desire to reach the goal you have set before them can produce impressive results.
It develops their skills.
The leaders of the future have to come from somewhere. Developing your employees through delegation and helping them to learn new skills not only benefits them, but furnishes your organization with more qualified and better trained personnel.
It allows them to contribute significantly to team success.
Your employees will relish the prestige and recognition that comes with doing something that makes a difference. They will experience pride and a sense of accomplishment from making a significant contribution.
It fosters trust, boosts morale, promotes high productivity and efficiency, and generates a culture of enthusiasm, innovation, creativity, cooperation, and openness. It will reduce employee turnover and furnish the organization with better-qualified, more skilled employees.

Give six reasons why managers do not delegate

Many managers may have never received training in delegation.
The belief that employees cannot do the job as well as the manager can.
The belief that it takes less time to do the work than it takes to delegate the responsibility.
Lack of trust in employees’ motivation and commitment to quality.
The need to make one’s self indispensable.
The enjoyment of doing the work one’s self.
Guilt associated with giving more work to an overworked staff.

(a) Define an organisation chart

An organizational chart is a diagram that visually conveys a company’s internal structure by detailing the roles, responsibilities, and relationships between individuals within an entity. it shows the major functions and the lines of an organization authority relationship among the personnel at a given moment. Organizational charts are alternatively referred to as “org charts” or “organization charts.”

b.Outline the Procedure for Preparing Organization Chart

The following guidelines should be followed in preparing an organization chart:

Identify the chart fully by showing the name of the company, the date of preparation and title of person or name of the department responsible for its preparation. If the chart is for a section or division of a company; such information should be included as part of the title.
An organizational unit, position or function should be enclosed in rectangular boxes. Sometimes the names of personnel occupying positions are also included in the box.
Line relationships are shown by a continuous line. The vertical and horizontal solid lines are used to show the direction of lines of authority, and to link the boxes.
Dotted or broken lines may be used to show the flow of functional authority relationships.
For ease of reference and analysis, it is best to keep charts as simple as possible.

The Purpose Of Organization Charts

To show the relationship between staff at various levels in the organization. It shows the lines of authority and the limits of responsibility.
It is used to show a member of staff to whom he is responsible, and who is responsible to him. It illustrates the channels of communication.
It shows the complete picture of the organization in a simple way to understand. It provides information for everyone within the organization. It promotes easy communication in the organization.
It is used to control staff and ensure the maintenance of a reasonable balance within the various grades. This is because by constructing an organization chart, the executives is forced to think more specifically about organization relationship in order to ensure balance.
To know the various departments and the function of departmental heads at a glance.

Types Of Organization Chart

An organization chart may be drawn in a variety of ways. The following are examples:

Vertical Chart
Horizontal Chart
Pyramidal Chart
Circular Chart
Concentric Chart
Vertical Chart

The type of organization shows the organizational hierarchy, ranked from top to bottom. The flow of authority or line of command is from the top to the bottom. In a functional organization chart, the lines may be shown diagonally.
The vertical chart shows the highest decision making body or the chief executive at the top, followed by the next in command until the lowest in rank in the organization is represented at the bottom of the chart.

Horizontal Chart

In horizontal chart, the vertical lines are turned to horizontal lines. The horizontal attempt to de-emphasize level of authority and the psychological effects of feeling too. The horizontal chart is read from left to right rather than from top to bottom.
b.The Circular Chart (Or Sphere) Chart

It is used to show the respective sphere of responsibility more clearly than would be possible with the vertical and horizontal charts.

It tends to boost personnerl morale as they feel quite close to the centre of organizational authority and power. Within each circle there are smaller circles, representing the position of subordinates in each department.

c.Pyramidal Chart

This shows the levels of authority. The highest authority level is seen at the apex giving orders down the pyramid.

Concentric Chart

In the concentric chart, the chief executive is placed in the centre of the chart apparently indicating that all functions revolve around him. In the concentric chart, one departmental head it as close to the chief executive as the other, thereby eliminating the feelings of level, seniority or superiority.

Organizational charts range from simple charts depicting only major departments or units, to complex charts which includes minor units and various in the levels of authority.Organization charts may include the positions held by different individuals or at times, the functions of the different positions.

State the Advantages and disadvantages Of Organization Chart
- It shows at a glance of the organization structure. Members of staff from top to the bottom in the organization become aware of the structure of each section, department or the whole organization.
- It is easier to analyze and review the organization structure when it is represented graphically.
- Management relationships are visible.
- Spheres of responsibility and authority are defined.
- The span of control of each supervisor/manager can be seen.
- Lines of communication are well spelt out.
- Weakness in organization can be easily diagnosed, for instance, weak lines of communication, unattached staff, etc.
  Disadvantages Of Organizational Chart
- It shows only formal relationship and does not show any informal relationship between departments or individual which may exist in practice.
- The formality of the organizational chart may influence staff members to interprete their duties and responsibilities narrowly.
  It tends to increase formal and compartmentalized attitudes in executives and employees and discourages informal co-operation among them.
- It can lead to misunderstanding concerning the status of employees, e.g. Staff officers.
- Charts soon become out-dated as the organization expands the scope of business.
- The cost of preparation, revising and storing charts may be enormous

Construct a typical organisation chart for a medium to a large production company.

State any four types of management of power

power is: having the capacity or ability to act in certain ways or impose your will on others. This could be an assigned title or position that gives someone control and authority over others. Powerful leaders have a great capacity to influence others. Their power is based on a combination of their innate leadership qualities and the way others perceive them.

Types of power

Legitimate power

This is a type of formal power that you receive when you occupy a certain position in your organization.Depending on the position, it gives you authority within the company. It also lasts as long as you remain in that role. This type of power is recognized by subordinates. For this reason, it works well in hierarchical organizations such as the military.Legitimate power is obtained through demonstrating you have the skills required for the role. Because this type of power is given, it can also be taken away. Effective leaders don’t depend solely on legitimate power. Instead, they use it in combination with others.

Reward power

Reward power means having the capacity to offer rewards or benefits in exchange for carrying out a task or achieving a result. Rewards usually come in the form of Praises, benefits, promotions, or public praise. However, this type of power is not always as effective as some leaders think. It should be relevant and tangible enough to motivate your employees. It should also be something that’s within your power to give and doesn’t depend on your superiors. This type of power may help achieve results, but it doesn’t necessarily ensure the support or commitment of your employees.

Expert power

Expert power comes from having both deep technical knowledge and extensive experience in your field of expertise. When you’re the expert in your field, people in your company naturally come to you to benefit from your knowledge. Your expertise gives you credibility, and people trust and respect your opinions. Expert power gives you the ability to influence co-workers across all levels of the organization. This enables you to steer the growth and development of both individual colleagues and the company as a whole. However, a true expert knows they must continue developing their knowledge and skills to maintain credibility.

Referent power

This is the type of power that gives a leader the greatest influence. Leaders get referent power through qualities that inspire trust and respect in their colleagues. These include honesty and integrity. A person who holds referent power has excellent interpersonal skills and exudes confidence. This makes them natural leaders. They listen to their colleagues and offer help and support. This type of power is internal rather than external. It is a personal power that cannot be handed to you by someone else. As your referent power grows, so too will your capacity to influence your colleagues.

Coercive power

Coercive power is one of the most commonly used in many workplaces, yet it is also the least effective. It involves using threats to force people to do your will. They might not agree with what they have to do, but they do it out of fear of repercussions such as losing their jobs

Explain three limitations of traits theory of leadership

There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader
The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply generalities.
There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader
The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader.
The theory is very complex

state four ways of sourcing personel in an organization

In HR, sourcing refers to proactively identifying, contacting, and engaging qualified candidates for a job opening rather than waiting for candidates to apply on their own.

Distinguish between system management approach and contigency management approach theories

The systems theory focuses on the internal dynamics of an organization’s structure and behavior. On the other hand, the contingency organizational theory focuses on the external determinants of the organization’s behavior and structure.

The systems theory lays down universal principles for application in all situations. On the other hand, the contingency organizational theory works on the prescription which says that ‘it all depends’.

In other words, the contingency organizational theory spells out the relationship between an organization and its external environment and endeavors to fill a critical lacuna of the systems theory.

Further, it offers a more explicit understanding of the relationship between various variables of the environment. It is also action-oriented and directed towards the application of the system theory’s concepts.

Describe three types of leadership
Autocratic Leadership

Also known as Authoritarian Leadership, an Autocratic Leadership style can easily be summed up by the command, “Do as you’re told.” In Autocratic Leadership, direction comes from the top, a singular figure who leads a company or team. An autocratic leader determines strategy, policies, procedures, and the direction of the organization, dictating everything to subordinates. Authoritarian leaders are not focused on collaboration with those in their circle, they are rarely interested in feedback, and they prefer to hold all of the power and be in charge.

Democratic Leadership

Also known as Participative Leadership, the Democratic Leadership approach involves gathering input from your subordinates and team members so everyone has a chance to contribute to the decision-making process. Democratic leaders are still the decision-makers, but their approach allows others to feel engaged and have a stake in the final outcome. Democratic leaders excel at sparking creativity among subordinates, and projects are enhanced when positive contributions come from all sides.

Laissez-faire Leadership

Laissez-faire Leadership is not a “Who cares?” approach. Rather, it involves empowering your employees, being hands-off, and trusting them to accomplish the task at hand without constant questions or micromanagement. Laissez-faire leaders leave decisions to their employees, while staying available to provide feedback when necessary.

Transformational Leadership

Transformational Leadership involves developing a grand vision and rallying your employees around it. Under this style, the team is eager to transform and evolve – personally and professionally – in order to achieve the overall goal. With the organization and employees aligned, teams working under a transformational leader are united for the singular cause, and willing to commit their effort, time, and energy to the organization.

Highlight objectives of management by Objectives (MBO) in management
Outline the steps followed in MBO

Define organization goals

Setting objectives is not only critical to the success of any company, but it also serves a variety of purposes. It needs to include several different types of managers in setting goals. The objectives set by the supervisors are provisional, based on an interpretation and evaluation of what the company can and should achieve within a specified time.

Define employee objectives

Once the employees are briefed about the general objectives, plan, and the strategies to follow, the managers can start working with their subordinates on establishing their personal objectives. This will be a one-on-one discussion where the subordinates will let the managers know about their targets and which goals they can accomplish within a specific time and with what resources. They can then share some tentative thoughts about which goals the organization or department can find feasible.

Continuous monitoring performance and progress

Though the management by objectives approach is necessary for increasing the effectiveness of managers, it is equally essential for monitoring the performance and progress of each employee in the organization.

Performance evaluation

Within the MBO framework, the performance review is achieved by the participation of the managers concerned.

Providing feedback

In the management by objectives approach, the most essential step is the continuous feedback on the results and objectives, as it enables the employees to track and make corrections to their actions. The ongoing feedback is complemented by frequent formal evaluation meetings in which superiors and subordinates may discuss progress towards objectives, leading to more feedback.

Performance appraisal

Performance reviews are a routine review of the success of employees within MBO organizations.

State the benefits of democratic leadership style

Improved employee engagement.
Increased job satisfaction and employee experience.
Boosted employee morale.
Increased productivity.
Employees feel more valued at work.
It strengthens workplace relationships at all levels.
People feel more connected to the work they’re doing.

Distinguish between tactical planing and operation planning

Tactical planning is different from operational planning in that tactical plans ask specific questions about what needs to happen to accomplish a strategic goal; operational plans ask how the organization will generally do something to accomplish the company’s mission.

State any four ways of settling a labor disputes

Negotiation

Negotiation is usually the first approach to take before resorting to other methods. It is more informal and affords the parties flexibility. Essentially, negotiation is simply parties identifying an issue and meeting to fix it—they control the process and the solution.

Mediation

Mediation is a type of assisted negotiation. During mediation, parties obtain the help of a neutral third party (the mediator) to help them resolve the dispute. Importantly, mediation requires a lot of involvement from both sides.

Conciliation

Conciliation, like mediation, is confidential, voluntary, and flexible. It is also facilitated by a neutral third party (a conciliator) and focused on reaching a dispute resolution that both parties consider satisfactory. Unlike in mediation, the conciliator provides parties with a proposal to resolve the issue, and the parties work from there. The presented proposal is non-binding—although, like in mediation, any formal agreements struck after conciliation can be made legally binding.

Arbitration

Arbitration is more formal than negotiation, mediation, or conciliation, and can look more like litigation. Parties submit their dispute to an arbitrator who renders a decision following the process. Parties can agree to arbitrate before or after a conflict occurs.

Private Judging

In private judging, parties authorize an expert in their legal dispute to resolve the issue. The parties hire a private judge, often a former judge or an attorney. The parties take turns presenting their case to the judge, after which the judge issues a legally binding decision.

State the criteria for assessing goals in planning

RELEVANCE is the intervention doing the right things?
COHERENCE how well does the intervention fit?
EFFECTIVENESS is the intervention achieving its objectives?
EFFICIENCY how well are resources being used?
IMPACT what difference does the intervention make?
SUSTAINABILITY how long will the benefits last?

Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards for motivation giving examples for each

Intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards are essentially the opposite of each other — one reward is internally based while the other is externally based. For example, an intrinsic reward is the feeling of satisfaction after completing a large project, and an extrinsic reward is a monetary bonus received for finishing that project. In most instances, an intrinsic reward is based on the employee’s personal feelings and interpretation of a situation, while an extrinsic reward is not related to a person’s feelings but rather on whether a specific task or other work-related duty is completed in a successful way.

Differentiate between recruitment and selection of staff

Recruitment refers to the process where potential applicants are searched for, and then encouraged to apply for an actual or anticipated vacancy. Selection is the process of hiring employees among the shortlisted candidates and providing them a job in the organization.

State four ways in which large organization can cluster jobs into departments for better coordination
Outline three steps that an organization can adopt to ensure that performance standards are maintained

Set specific and measurable goal

Try to be specific and measurable as you create your performance standards. Your employees should know exactly what you expect from them after reading the standards. To create specific standards, make a list of company goals, and use them as a starting point for your standards. Use measurable standards when possible. This means that you can measure your employees’ performances over a period of time.

Set clear channels of communication

When writing performance standards, use clear language. This means that you describe what the standard is and how the employee can achieve it. Using clear language can help your employees easily understand your company’s goals. You can implement clear language by using plain wording that concisely states the meaning of the standard. Try using active verbs and short sentences or phrases as well.

Include essential tasks

An important aspect of creating performance standards is only including essential tasks. While you want enough standards to encompass your company’s goals and values, you may also want to limit how many standards you add. You can balance this by only including tasks that are essential to your company.

Distinguish between sick leave and compassionate leave granted to employees working in an organization

Sick leave is the leave that an employee is legally entitled to when the employee gets ill and needs time to recover. Compassionate leave is time off from work for employees to deal with a family emergency. Compassionate leave generally encompasses: Caring for an ill dependent such as a parent, child, or spouse. Making arrangements for the funeral of a dependent.

Define the term collective bargaining

Collective bargaining is the process in which working people, through their unions, negotiate contracts with their employers to determine their terms of employment, including pay, benefits, hours, leave, job health and safety policies, ways to balance work and family, and more.

State three prerequisite condition that a union in Kenya must fulfil before entering into collective bargaining process

Be a member of Trade Union: A strong and stable representative trade union is essential for effective collective bargaining.
Compulsory Recognition of Trade Unions: There must be an acceptable and recognised bargaining agent. The process of collective bargaining cannot begin until unions are recognised by the employers.
Mutual Accommodation: There has to be a greater emphasis on mutual accommodation rather than conflict or uncompromising attitude.
Mutual Trust and Confidence:
There should be mutual trust and confidence. In fact in any relationship trust is the most important factor. Management must accept the union as the official representative. The union must accept the management as the primary planners and controllers of the company’s operations.
There has to be an Efficient Bargaining Mechanism:
Emphasis should be based on Problem-solving Attitude: The emphasis is to look for mutually acceptable solutions rather than creating problems for each other.
Political Climate: There has to be a political environment that support collective bargaining.

Describe four management practices that have lead to industrial disputes in Kenyan organization

Wages and allowances:

Since the cost of living is increasing, workers generally bargain for higher wages to meet the rising cost of living index and to increase their standards of living.Most of disputes were caused by demand of higher wages and allowances.

Indiscipline and violence:

Most industrial disputes are caused by indiscipline and violence either from workers and staff

Payment of Bonus:

Bonus has always been an important factor in industrial disputes.

Leave and working hours:

Leaves and working hours is also an important causes of industrial disputes.

State four benefits of using contingency approach to management

It provides a realistic view of management and organization.
It discards the universal validity of principles.
Managers are situation-oriented and not stereotyped.
Lends itself to an innovative and creative management style.

List four functions of management in an organization

There are four generally accepted functions of management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. These functions work together in the creation, execution and realization of organizational goals. The four functions of management can be considered a process where each function builds on the previous function.

Distinguish between MBO and MBE based on

Employee participation

MBO is a management approach in which managers and employees work together to set, communicate, and achieve specific, measurable goals for the organization. MBE is a management approach in which managers focus on identifying and addressing exceptions or deviations from established standards or goals

Efficiency

Management by objectives (MBO) is a systematic and organized approach that aims to increase organizational performance.

In other hand.Management by Exception (MBE) is a “policy by which management devotes its time to investigating only those situations in which actual results differ significantly from planned results.’’

Define the term “ terms of Employment”as used in labour laws

Terms of employment are the benefits and responsibilities that an employee agrees to when they accept a job. Terms may include things like salary, benefits, retirement, company policies, termination, and non-compete agreements.

List five examples of job specific conditions of employment

These conditions include things like lighting, the size of the space in which a worker must perform her job, exposure to potential toxins, allergens, nuclear or biological hazards, and what kind of physical strain (i.e. heavy lifting, a worker can expect to undergo.

List the three elements involved in delegation in an organization

Delegation of authority consists of three elements:-

Responsibility
Authority
Describe how delegation in an organization may impact negatively on quality of work

Delegation promotes efficiency and promotes flexibility.
It allows work to be done by different people in different ways thereby ensuring a high level of success and achievement of objectives.
This also results in a balance of workloads.
Delegation promotes effective communication.

List five ways of measuring performance in an organization

Graphic rating scales. Scales are often used to rate behavioral elements, such as “understands job tasks” or “participates in decision-making.” Or they could note the frequency an employee
Self-Evaluation. Asking an employee to evaluate her own performance can be very effective. Often, employees may be more critical of their performance than you might be. You can use a form that requires multiple-choice answers, essay-type answers, or a combination of the two. Comparing a self-evaluation to your own objective appraisal can be helpful in finding similarities and discrepancies along with a richer understanding of employee’s performance. It can generate conversations that can be beneficial to employee development.
Management by Objectives (MBO). Also known as “management by results,” this is a process whereby employees and managers form objectives together. They jointly determine individual objectives, how they align with company goals, and how performance will be measured and evaluated. MBO gives employees a clear understanding of what’s expected and allows them to participate in the process, which may foster better communication and increase motivation.
Using a simple “yes-no” checklist is a quick and easy way to identify employees that have deficiencies in various performance areas. It will also identify those that need additional training and knowledge to become more efficient.

State four advantages of autocractic leadership to an organization

It often leads to micromanagement.
It does not offer a sense of professional ownership.
It creates a work culture based on the leader.
It creates a system of dependence.
It creates a lack of trust.

Differentiate between mechanistic and organic organizational structure design

Mechanistic structures are those that resemble a bureaucracy. These structures are highly formalized and centralized. Communication tends to follow formal channels and employees are given specific job descriptions delineating their roles and responsibilities. Mechanistic organizations are often rigid and resist change, making them unsuitable for innovativeness and taking quick action. These forms have the downside of inhibiting entrepreneurial action and discouraging the use of individual initiative on the part of employees. Not only do mechanistic structures have disadvantages for innovativeness, but they also limit individual autonomy and self-determination, which will likely lead to lower levels of intrinsic motivation on the job

In contrast to mechanistic structures, organic structures are flexible and decentralized, with low levels of formalization. In Organizations with an organic structure, communication lines are more fluid and flexible. Employee job descriptions are broader and employees are asked to perform duties based on the specific needs of the organization at the time as well as their own expertise levels. Organic structures tend to be related to higher levels of job satisfaction on the part of employees. These structures are conducive to entrepreneurial behavior and innovativeness

Describe four types of skills important for effective management

Interpersonal skills.
Communication and motivation.
Organisation and delegation.
Forward planning and strategic thinking.
Problem solving and decision-making.
Commercial awareness.
How do I develop these management skills?

Explain circumstances when collective bargaining is not done in good faith

Generally, bargaining in good faith involves the union and the employer meeting with each other to exchange proposals for a collective agreement. They must make a sincere attempt to reach an agreement.

Disagreeing with the other side’s proposals or taking a very firm stand in support of your own positions is not bargaining in bad faith. However, adopting a deliberate strategy to prevent reaching agreement could be a breach of the duty to bargain good faith.

Explain why workers join trade unions

Union members typically receive higher wages and better benefits than nonunion workers.
Unions also have contract terms that give workers greater job security and influence over work rules.
Union security arrangements may require membership for workers.

Outline steps involved in the recruitment of staffs by an organization
Identify Your Needs

Create a list of needs before you create a job posting.

Prepare the Job Description

Once you understand your business and department’s needs, you should determine the duties and responsibilities of the role and write them out. Job descriptions help communicate the organization’s needs and expectations to a potential candidate. It’s essential to be as specific as possible in the job description to attract and meet candidates who can sufficiently meet the demands of the role.

Create a Recruitment Plan

Save time and energy by creating a recruitment plan. Strategize the best ways to get the word out about the job. Determine who will be reviewing resumes, scheduling interviews, and deciding on the right candidate.

Start Searching

Use keyword recruitment tools to cut down on your search time during the recruitment process. This can be the most time-consuming part of recruiting, and keyword tools can weed out unqualified applicants.

Recruit Top-Tier Candidates

The best candidates likely have many options, and you’ll need to maintain timely communication or they’ll quickly move on to other opportunities. Use a mobile hiring app to review top candidates quickly, right on your smartphone, whether you’re in the office or on the go.

Conduct a Phone Screening

Once you have your eye on certain applicants, conduct a phone screening to narrow down the selection process and make sure you want to take the time to interview the candidate in person. Make a list of the best interview questions to ask before you get started.

Interview in Person

Interviews should be conducted soon after a phone screening—ideally within a week. The process shouldn’t stretch on too long, or candidates may lose interest. Communicate with the interviewee about where you are in the process and how long it will take to get back to them with your decision. And then be sure to follow up, even if you decide they’re not a good fit. Be sure to allot enough time so you can focus and give candidates your undivided attention.

Offering the Job

Just because you offer an employee a job doesn’t mean they’re going to accept. Take great care in this step of the process to present a desirable offer the candidate won’t want to pass up. Over 90 percent of people report being contacted by a manager can make them accept a job offer faster, so don’t be afraid to reach out. But expect the process to take time, and be ready to negotiate salary and benefits.

Onboarding a New Employee

Now that you’ve determined which candidate will be joining your team, Implement a new hire onboarding process so the candidate has a positive experience and can easily dive into the job you’ve hired them for. The onboarding process should focus on processes and resources that will help new hires transition successfully into the company. For example, assigning a mentor or a buddy and setting up one-on-one time with managers can help expedite new hire proficiency.

Outline five benefits of motivation in an organization

Lower levels of absenteeism – employees taking fewer days off for sickness or other reasons. Motivated employees are more likely to be willing to work, rather than staying off.
Retention of workers – low levels of staff turnover. This is very important for businesses, as employees that stay in a business have experience and keep recruitment costs low. Less training is also required.
Improved relations between management and workers. This could mean that employees are more likely accept changes without dispute, and will be less likely to take either legal or industrial action against managers.
Improved worker performance. Motivated employees will generally work harder, arrive on time, and focus on their daily duties. Productivity levels could increase and the overall output of a business may be higher.
Improved quality and improved customer service. Motivated employees are more likely to work to a higher standard and put more effort into creating higher quality products. Those in service industries are also more likely to provide a higher level of customer service and be more enthusiastic about their role.

Highlight objectives of management by objectives (MBO) in management

MakingProper Use of The Available Resources.
Ensuring Business Development and Growth.
Ensuring Quality Products And Services.
Ensuring Availability of Goods and Services.
Ensuring Discipline in the Workplace.
Attracting the Best Candidates for the Job.
Making Futuristic Plans.
Reducing the Element of Risks.

State the importance of trade unions

Trade unions:

negotiate agreements with employers on pay and conditions
discuss major changes to the workplace such as large scale redundancy
discuss members’ concerns with employers
accompany members in disciplinary and grievance meetings
provide members with legal and financial advice
provide education facilities and certain consumer benefits such as discounted insurance

Outline the major causes of industrial dispute

There are a number of causes for industrial disputes which can be classified into four categories as follows:

Economic Causes:

The most common causes of industrial disputes are economic causes. These are as follows:

Wages:

The demand for wage increase is the prime-most cause of the industrial disputes. A large number of strikes are being organised to raise a voice against the rise in prices and cost of living.

Allowance and Bonus:

Increase in cost of living was the main cause of the demand of allowance by the workers to equate their wages with the rise in prices. Bonus also plays an important role as a cause of industrial dispute.

Working Condition and Working Hours:

The working conditions in industries are not hygienic. There is not ample provision of water, heating, lighting, safety etc. Working hours are also greater. The demand of palatable working conditions and shorter hours of work are also responsible for labour disputes.

Modernisation and Automation of Plant and Machinery:

The attempt at modernisation and introduction of automatic machinery to replace labour has been the major cause of disputes. Workers go on strike, off and on, to resist rationalisation and automation.

Demand for Other Facilities:

Demand for other facilities for meeting out their basic needs such as medical, education, housing, etc., encourage the workers to resort to direct action because such facilities were denied by the employers.

(b) Managerial Causes of Industrial Disputes:

These causes include autocratic managerial attitude and defective labour policies etc.

Denial of Recognition to Trade Unions:

Failure on the part of the employer to recognise the trade unions or to recognise the rival union for representation, insult of trade union leaders by the employers are some of the examples of autocratic managerial attitude worth mentioning as the causes of industrial disputes. Moreover, the management is generally not willing to talk over the dispute with the workers or workers’ representatives or refer it to ‘arbitration’ even when the workers are willing to do so.

Defective Recruitment Policies:

The recruitment practices in industries are defective. Recruitment is generally made by the contractors who exploit the workers and suppress their individuality. The defective promotion, demotion, transfer and placement policies encourage dissatisfaction among workers.

Irregular Lay-Off and Retrenchment:

Lay-off and retrenchment are reasons to be mentioned for encouraging industrial disputes. Most employers follow the policy of ‘Hire and Fire’. As a matter of practice, workers are not made permanent for a pretty long time to deprive them of their legitimate rights.

Defiance of Agreements and Codes:

The employers regularly defy the provisions of collective bargaining agreements and code of conduct and code of discipline with a view to harass or exploit the employees and just encourage strife.

Defective Leadership:

Inefficient leadership is also one of the causes of disputes. Leadership from the management and from the workers is quite incompetent to induce the workers to get them worked. The employers’ representatives are not delegated sufficient authority to negotiate with the workers.

They are not in a position to commit anything to workers on behalf of the management. Defective management leadership ignored the labour problems and inefficient labour leadership could not coordinate the efforts of their fellow members, so disputes arise.

(c) Government policies :

Government measures to prevent and policies to settle the disputes are not much effective.

State four ways of settling labor or trade disputes

Some of the methods used for preventing and settling industrial disputes are: 1. Collective bargaining 2. Mediation, 3. Conciliation and 4. Arbitration.

Collective Bargaining:

“Collective Bargaining” is the process of negotiating terms of employment and other conditions of work between the representatives of management and organised labour. When it is free of intimidation and coercion and is conducted in good faith, collective bargaining culminates in a workable contract i.e., labour contract.

Mediation:

Mediation is an attempt to settle disputes with the help of an outsider who attempts to stimulate labour and management to reach some type of agreement. The mediator, unlike an arbitrator, cannot decide the issue. He listens, suggests, communicates and persuades. He does not give any award.

Conciliation:

Conciliation is merely the bringing together by a third party the two parties in disputes.

Arbitration:

Arbitration is resorted to by the parties fail to arrive at a settlement by voluntary method. The parties to the dispute may then appoint an arbitrator and refer the dispute to him. The arbitration award is binding upon the parties who referred the dispute to arbitration. Arbitration can be either voluntary or compulsory.

Arbitration provides justice at the minimum cost. An industrial dispute may be referred to an arbitrator by a written agreement entered into by employer and employees at any time before referring dispute to a labour court or industrial tribunal or national tribunal.

Explain factors that managers should consider during performance appraisal process

.Punctuality

Punctuality refers to the degree to which an employee is on-time for work. You may choose to include attendance in this performance factor.

Accountability

Accountability refers to the process by which employees take responsibility for their actions if an error occurs and understand how their job affects the productivity of the rest of the office.

Quality of work

Quality of work is a factor that allows you to assess the overall quality of the work they contribute to your organization.

Quantity of work

Quantity of work is a way of measuring productivity within the workplace. Measure the quantity of work by comparing the number of tasks they complete in a given time frame to the needs of the company.

Time management

Time-management is the process by which employees meet deadlines and allot specific amounts of time to certain tasks.

Teamwork

Teamwork refers to the degree to which an employee works well with their co-workers.

Reliability

Reliability can encapsulate factors such as punctuality, productivity and work quality to assess how dependable your employees are.

Communication abilities

The degree to which an employee is able to communicate with their coworkers, superiors or subordinates may be an important performance appraisal factor. This includes verbal communication, written communication and interpersonal communication.

Leadership capabilities

Especially for those seeking management positions, leadership capabilities show how well a person can lead a team and model exemplary behavior on the job.

Skills and job expertise

Another potential factor is the amount of industry knowledge and skills that an employee demonstrates in their daily job duties.

Outline Henry Fayol principles of effective management
Division of Work-

Henri believed that segregating work in the workforce amongst the worker will enhance the quality of the product. Similarly, he also concluded that the division of work improves the productivity, efficiency, accuracy and speed of the workers. This principle is appropriate for both the managerial as well as a technical work level.

Authority and Responsibility-

These are the two key aspects of management. Authority facilitates the management to work efficiently, and responsibility makes them responsible for the work done under their guidance or leadership.

Discipline-

Without discipline, nothing can be accomplished. It is the core value for any project or any management. Good performance and sensible interrelation make the management job easy and comprehensive. Employees good behaviour also helps them smoothly build and progress in their professional careers.

Unity of Command-

This means an employee should have only one boss and follow his command. If an employee has to follow more than one boss, there begins a conflict of interest and can create confusion.

Unity of Direction-

Whoever is engaged in the same activity should have a unified goal. This means all the person working in a company should have one goal and motive which will make the work easier and achieve the set goal easily.

Subordination of Individual Interest-

This indicates a company should work unitedly towards the interest of a company rather than personal interest. Be subordinate to the purposes of an organization. This refers to the whole chain of command in a company.

Remuneration-

This plays an important role in motivating the workers of a company. Remuneration can be monetary or non-monetary. However, it should be according to an individual’s efforts they have made.

Centralization-

In any company, the management or any authority responsible for the decision-making process should be neutral. However, this depends on the size of an organization. Henri Fayol stressed on the point that there should be a balance between the hierarchy and division of power.

Scalar Chain-

Fayol on this principle highlights that the hierarchy steps should be from the top to the lowest. This is necessary so that every employee knows their immediate senior also they should be able to contact any, if needed.

Order-

A company should maintain a well-defined work order to have a favourable work culture. The positive atmosphere in the workplace will boost more positive productivity.

Equity-

All employees should be treated equally and respectfully. It’s the responsibility of a manager that no employees face discrimination.

Stability-

An employee delivers the best if they feel secure in their job. It is the duty of the management to offer job security to their employees.

Initiative-

The management should support and encourage the employees to take initiatives in an organization. It will help them to increase their interest and make then worth.

Esprit de Corps-

It is the responsibility of the management to motivate their employees and be supportive of each other regularly. Developing trust and mutual understanding will lead to a positive outcome and work environment.

Requirements for Successful Negotiations:

The representatives or spokesmen of management and labour must have sufficient authority to bind each side in the negotiation. The representatives must have a thorough knowledge of the company’s wage scale and the wage scales of the industry and the area.

They should be well versed in all points at issue and know past court decisions relating to similar cases. They should study all the proposed clauses to the contract and arrive at tentative agreements. The negotiators sign an agreement only after all outstanding issues are settled.

Contract provisions in labour agreements generally stipulate details concerning union membership; the duration of agreement; the procedure for termination or amendment; wages and hours; overtime; shift differentials; insurance and other benefits; seniority; grievance procedure; and conditions for hire, promotion, or dismissal.

Differentiate between dispute of rights and dispute of interest

In the case of a dispute of right, the basis of an employee’s claim is vested in a legal or contractual right. … Disputes of ‘right’, such as dismissal disputes, are resolved by arbitration or bargaining council, or adjudication in the labour court.

A dispute of interest, such as wage disputes, are resolved by what is called a ‘power-play’ by the parties and involves striking or locking out if the parties cannot agree to settle the dispute.This is is not based on any existing right – here employees or their unions approach the employer in order to establish a new right., Clearly, the parties are also encouraged to agree to have the dispute resolved by some form of private arbitration, such as pendulum or ”final offer’ arbitration.

State four advantages of planning in an organization
Planning facilitates management by objectives.

ü Planning minimizes uncertainties.

ü Planning facilitates co-ordination.

ü · Planning improves employee’s moral.

ü · Planning helps in achieving economies.

ü · Planning facilitates controlling.

ü · Planning provides competitive edge.

ü · Planning encourages innovations.

Describe any five measures that an organization should implement in order to minimize accidents in their material stores

Identify the Hazards

Be aware of surroundings. Look around and identify workplace hazards that could cause harm.

Look for ways to reduce or eliminate hazards, and implement them.

Report unsafe areas or practices.

Dress for the weather.

Use the EHS Job Hazard Analysis tools to identify hazards associated with job types.

Create a Safe Work Area

Keep an orderly workplace. Poor housekeeping can cause serious health and safety hazards. The layout of the workplace should have adequate egress routes and be free of debris.

Inspect vehicles before and after use. DRIVE SAFELY.

Continually cultivate a safety standard.

Take breaks and move around regularly throughout the day. Small breaks (standing up and moving around) can make a big difference in combating the dangers of staying in a static position all day long.

Pay attention to workstation ergonomics.

(c )Use Safe Lifting Techniques

Follow the following safe lifting practices:

Lift from a position of power

Keep the load close

Use a staggered stance

Don’t twist while lifting

Training in body mechanics can reduce strain injuries and keep employees safe during lifting and moving.

Personal Protective Equipment

The proper use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) can dramatically reduce the risk of injury. Examples of PPE include gear such as earplugs, hard hats, safety goggles, gloves, air-purifying respirators and safety shoes.

Regular Communication

(e )Report about safety hazards.

Speak up and be involved in safety planning.

Continually cultivate a safety standard.

Education and Training

Ensure everyone has the proper safety training relating to the hazards of the job.

Take advantage of Environmental Health and Safety online training programs.

It is each employee’s responsibility to take an active role in maintaining safety.

Name types of communication flow in an organization

There are 5 main types of communication flow within an organization: downward, upward, lateral, diagonal, and external.

Downward communication is communication that flows down from the higher levels of an organization to the lower levels, or down the chain of command. This type of communication transmits work-related information to lower level employees, which helps them to meet the expectations that have been set by their superiors.
Upward communication flows from the lower levels of an organization to the higher levels, which helps to relay the effectiveness of downward communication and allows employees to convey their opinions and ideas. Upward communications give employees a voice within the organization, to share their grievances, opinions, and ideas for the organization. This allows for managers to work out any issues and keep the workplace a pleasant place to be. This communication is facilitated through the Grievance Redressal System, Complaint/Suggestion Box, face-to-face conversations, etc. When effectively utilized this creates more loyal and committed employees because they feel like they can take some ownership and have a voice within the organization.
Lateral communication takes place at the same level of hierarchy within an organization.When lateral communication is being used effectively it creates camaraderie, and builds rapport with coworkers. Many times this flow of communication brings coworkers closer because it provides them with emotional and social assistance in the office.
Diagonal communication is when a manager works with employees from another department or work group. This is utilized in instances like when a manager is creating a training module and works with employees from various departments to ensure that the training is accurate, or when a project spans across multiple departments. Effective diagonal communication leads to uniformity across an organization, and helps prevent any misunderstanding that may occur through the communication chain.
External communication is between a manager and an external group such as – vendors, suppliers, banks, etc. This communication helps to ensure that the organization has all that it needs to be able to function properly.
Explain the importance of budgeting to an organization

Budgeting allows:

A business to plan out expenses,
A bussiness to reach its business goals
To anticipate any operational changes as needed to support the business. helps a business understand its operating costs
Can be used to track performance.

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